Alcohol Intake and Risk of Hypertension: A Systematic Review and Dose-Response Meta-Analysis of Nonexperimental Cohort Studies

BACKGROUND: Alcohol consumption has been associated with higher blood pressure and an increased risk of hypertension. However, the possible exposure thresholds and effect-modifiers are uncertain. METHODS: We assessed the dose-response relationship between usual alcohol intake and hypertension incidence in nonexperimental cohort studies. After performing a systematic literature search through February 20, 2024, we retrieved 23 eligible studies. We computed risk ratios and 95% CI of hypertension incidence using a nonlinear meta-analytic model based on restricted cubic splines, to assess the dose-response association with alcohol consumption. RESULTS: We observed a positive and almost linear association between alcohol intake and hypertension risk with risk ratios of 0.89 (0.84–0.94), 1.11 (1.07–1.15), 1.22 (1.14–1.30), and 1.33 (1.18–1.49) for 0, 24, 36 and 48 g/d, respectively, using 12 g alcohol/d as the reference value. In sex-specific analyses, the association was almost linear in men over the entire range of exposure but only observed above 12 g/d in women, although with a steeper association at high levels of consumption compared with men. The increased risk of hypertension above 12 to 24 g alcohol/d was similar in Western and Asian populations and considerably greater in Whites than in Blacks, mainly due to the positive association in women at moderate-to-high intake. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, our results lend support to a causal association between alcohol consumption and risk of hypertension, especially above an alcohol intake of 12 g/d, and are consistent with recommendations to avoid or limit alcohol intake. Sex and ethnicity appear to be major effect-modifiers of such association.