Mitochondrial Dysfunction is a Crucial Immune Checkpoint for Neuroinflammation and Neurodegeneration: mtDAMPs in Focus

Neuroinflammation is a pivotal factor in the progression of both age-related and acute neurodegenerative disorders, including Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, multiple sclerosis, and stroke. Mitochondria, essential for neuronal health due to their roles in energy production, calcium buffering, and oxidative stress regulation, become increasingly susceptible to dysfunction under conditions of metabolic stress, aging, or injury. Impaired mitophagy in aged or injured neurons leads to the accumulation of dysfunctional mitochondria, which release mitochondrial-derived damage-associated molecular patterns (mtDAMPs). These mtDAMPs act as immune checkpoints, activating pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) and triggering innate immune signaling pathways. This activation initiates inflammatory responses in neurons and brain-resident immune cells, releasing cytokines and chemokines that damage adjacent healthy neurons and recruit peripheral immune cells, further amplifying neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration. Long-term mitochondrial dysfunction perpetuates a chronic inflammatory state, exacerbating neuronal injury and contributing additional immunogenic components to the extracellular environment. Emerging evidence highlights the critical role of mtDAMPs in initiating and sustaining neuroinflammation, with circulating levels of these molecules potentially serving as biomarkers for disease progression. This review explores the mechanisms of mtDAMP release due to mitochondrial dysfunction, their interaction with PRRs, and the subsequent activation of inflammatory pathways. We also discuss the role of mtDAMP-triggered innate immune responses in exacerbating both acute and chronic neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration. Targeting dysfunctional mitochondria and mtDAMPs with pharmacological agents presents a promising strategy for mitigating the initiation and progression of neuropathological conditions.