Urban green inequality and its mismatches with human demand across neighborhoods in New York, Amsterdam, and Beijing

Context Urban green spaces (UGS) are not evenly distributed within cities, and some neighborhoods with high socio-environmental demands require more UGS than others. This raises two challenges: green inequality and demand-based inequity. However, comprehensive assessments of UGS inequality and inequity in cities worldwide are lacking. Objectives We aim to develop a multi-level approach and supply-demand concept to assess UGS inequality and inequity across neighborhoods in international cities with contrasting geographical and socio-political contexts. Methods We measured multi-level green accessibility and human demands based on Earth Observation and statistical data. UGS inequality and supply-demand mismatches were assessed by Gini coefficients, spatial cluster analysis, and statistical models. Results We found that: (1) UGS inequality is primarily reflected by the public park per capita in three cities. New York has larger UGS inequality than Beijing and Amsterdam. (2) Demand-based inequity in terms of low supply and high demand is mainly scattered around the city center in three cities. Tree coverage does not align with environmental pressures (LST/PM2.5) in New York and Beijing. (3) Relations between green supplies and human demands vary by cities and indicators. A shorter distance to the nearest large park is associated with a higher proportion of the elderly and children in New York and Amsterdam. Conclusions Our findings can inform UGS allocations to improve landscape sustainability in the neighborhoods with low green supply and high human demand, and to prioritize specific green metrics based on demand-oriented equity.