Insights of Phytoremediation Mechanisms for Viruses Based on In-Vitro, In-Vivo and In-Silico Assessments of Selected Herbal Plants.

Waterborne pathogenic viruses present unrelenting challenges to the global health and wastewater treatment industry. Phytoremediation offers promising solutions for wastewater treatment through plant-based technologies. This study investigated antiviral mechanisms in-vivo using bacteriophages MS2 and T4 as surrogates for effective herbs screened in-vitro from three embryophytes (Ocimum basilicum, Mentha sp., Plectranthus amboinicus), two macrophytes (Eichhornia crassipes, Pistia stratiotes) and a perennial grass (Cyperus rotundas). In-silico virtual screening predicted antiviral phytochemicals for further antiviral potency assessment. Results suggested in-vitro antiviral activities of embryophytes and macrophytes were higher (43–62%) than grass (21–26%). O. basilicum (OB, 57–62%) and P. stratiotes (PS, 59–60%) exhibited the highest antiviral activities. In-vivo tests showed notable virus reduction (>60%) in culture solution, attributed to rhizofiltration (66–74%) and phytoinactivation/phytodegradation (63–84%). In-silico analysis identified rutin as a primary antiviral phytochemical for MS2 (−9.7 kcal/mol) and T4 (−10.9 kcal/mol), correlating with dose-response inactivation (∼58–62%). In-vivo tests suggested additional phytocompounds may contribute to viral inactivation. In-vivo tests suggested additional phytocompounds may contribute to viral inactivation, presenting new opportunities for herb-based wastewater treatment solutions. Consequently, this study not only demonstrates the antiviral capabilities of OB and PS but also introduces an innovative approach for addressing viral contaminants in water.