Lead poisoning epidemiology, challenges and opportunities: first systematic review and expert censuses of the MENA region

Abstract Lead is the most ubiquitous heavy metal in the Earth's crust. Since prehistoric times, lead has widely propagated and mobilized in the environment, increasing its non-essential uptake and exposure. The amount of lead entering the atmosphere has reduced substantially in the majority of wealthy nations. Acute exposure becomes relatively low, but chronic exposure to low levels of lead remains a significant public health issue. However, disadvantaged groups are developing and industrializing countries in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA). Our current study comprises various sources of lead pollutant from 48 studies. Of these, 34 studies entered systematic review synthesis after quality assessment and evaluation using the Mixed Method Appraisal Tool (MMAT). The study sought to identify lead pollution sources, epidemiology and distribution and analyse lead poisoning clinical manifestations, management, challenges and opportunities throughout the MENA countries.