Behavioral responses of two African mesopredators to human and non-human apex predators

Apex predators can both suppress mesopredators, causing behavioral changes such as temporal avoidance, and facilitate mesopredators via carrion provision. Thus, responses to apex predators may vary depending on the local context. We investigated the differences in the temporal activity of two mesopredators, the black-backed jackal (Lupulella/Canis mesomelas) and caracal (Caracal caracal), in response to the presence of human and non-human apex predators, using camera trap data. We compared mesopredator temporal overlap in the Eastern Cape province, South Africa, across a range of sites with and without lethal predator control (culling). We also assessed mesopredator activity across sites with varying apex predator (i.e., lions Panthera leo, leopards P. pardus, brown hyaenas Parahyanea brunnea, spotted hyaena Crocuta crocuta) presence, and between the mesopredator and apex predator species present. Jackals decreased diurnal activity at sites where culling occurred, increased nocturnal activity at sites with apex predators, and showed temporal overlap with apex predators, providing support that jackals avoid human activity, and apex predators may facilitate scavenging. Caracals remained crepuscular regardless of culling practices, were marginally more diurnal where apex predators were present, and showed low to moderate temporal overlap with these species, providing at least some support that apex predators may suppress caracals. Our results indicate that these mesopredators exhibit flexible behavioral responses to humans and apex predators which may promote their persistence across the landscape. While the activity patterns of mesopredators in response to apex predators are frequently assessed, the investigation of how mesopredator behavior differs in response to human and non-human apex predators has seldom been studied. Here, we present novel findings comparing the activity patterns of two mesopredators in response to human and non-human apex predators. We demonstrate that (1) both species avoid peak periods of human activity, (2) black-backed jackals also partially align their activity patterns with the activity patterns of apex predators, and (3) caracals show some temporal avoidance of apex predators. Ultimately, black-backed jackals likely improve their foraging success by balancing the energetic gain from scavenging with the increased costs associated with interference competition by apex predators. Whereas caracals likely reduce interference competition by temporally avoiding dominant apex predators.