Protocols for Plasmodium gametocyte production in vitro: an integrative review and analysis

Background The production of Plasmodium gametocytes in vitro is a real challenge. Many protocols have been described, but few have resulted in the production of viable and infectious gametocytes in sufficient quantities to conduct research on—but not limited to—transmission-blocking drug and vaccine development. The aim of this review was to identify and discuss gametocyte production protocols that have been developed over the last two decades. Methods We analyzed the original gametocyte production protocols published from 2000 onwards based on a literature search and a thorough review. A systematic review was performed of relevant articles identified in the PubMed, Web of Sciences and ScienceDirect databases. Results A total 23 studies on the production of Plasmodium gametocytes were identified, 19 involving in vitro Plasmodium falciparum , one involving Plasmodium knowlesi and three involving ex vivo Plasmodium vivax . Of the in vitro studies, 90% used environmental stressors to trigger gametocytogenesis. Mature gametocytemia of up to 4% was reported. Conclusions Several biological parameters contribute to an optimal production in vitro of viable and infectious mature gametocytes. The knowledge gained from this systematic review on the molecular mechanisms involved in gametocytogenesis enables reproducible gametocyte protocols with transgenic parasite lines to be set up. This review highlights the need for additional gametocyte production protocols for Plasmodium species other than P. falciparum . Graphical abstract