Evaluation of neural regulation and microglial responses to brain injury in larval zebrafish exposed to perfluorooctane sulfonate

ABSTRACT Background Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are biopersistent pollutants that have become global contaminants as a result of their diverse applications in commerce and industry. While some in vitro and epidemiological studies have explored the neurotoxic potential of perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS), a prevalent PFAS congener, it is unknown how developmental exposure to PFOS affects neuronal communication and other developmentally critical neural cell types, including microglia. Objectives We sought to determine the extent to which PFOS exposure disrupts brain health, neuronal activity, and neuron-microglia communication during brain development. In addition, while PFOS impairs humoral immunity, its impact on innate immune cells, including resident microglia, is unclear. As such, we aimed to determine whether microglia are cellular targets of PFOS and, if so, whether disrupted microglial development and/or function could contribute to or is influenced by PFOS-induced neural dysfunction. Methods Zebrafish were chronically exposed to either control solution (0.1% DMSO), 7 µM PFOS, 14 µM PFOS, 28 µM PFOS, or 64 µM perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA). We used in vivo imaging and gene expression analysis to assess microglial populations in the developing brain and to determine shifts in microglial state. We functionally challenged microglial using a larval brain injury model and, to assess the neuronal signaling environment, performed functional neuroimaging experiments utilizing the photoconvertible calcium indicator CaMPARI. These studies were paired with optogenetic manipulations of neurons and microglia, an untargeted metabolome wide association study (MWAS), and larval swim behavior assessments. Results Developmental PFOS exposure resulted in a shift away from the homeostatic microglia state, as determined by functional and morphological changes, as well as transcriptional upregulation of the microglia activation gene p2ry12 . PFOS-induced effects on microglia state exacerbated microglia responses to brain injury in the absence of increased cell death or inflammation. PFOS exposure also heightened neural calcium activity, and optogenetic silencing of neurons or microglia independently was sufficient to normalize microglial responses to injury. An untargeted MWAS of larval brains revealed PFOS-exposed larvae had neurochemical signatures of excitatory-inhibitory imbalance. Behaviorally, PFOS-exposed larvae also exhibited anxiety-like thigmotaxis. To test whether the neuronal and microglial phenotypes were specific to PFOS, we exposed embryos to PFOA, a known immunotoxic PFAS. PFOA did not alter thigmotaxis, neuronal activity, or microglial responses, further supporting a role for neuronal activity as a critical modifier of microglial function following PFOS exposure. Discussion Together, this study provides the first detailed account of the effects of PFOS exposure on neural cell types in the developing brain in vivo and adds neuronal hyperactivity as an important endpoint to assess when studying the impact of toxicant exposures on microglia function.