Seasonal dynamics of inoculum of Botryosphaeriaceae in macadamia orchards in Australia

Macadamia (Macadamia integrifolia and M. tetraphylla and their hybrids) is a tree nut crop affected by Botryosphaeria branch dieback. The disease results in branch and tree death in commercial orchards, so reducing the productivity of the Australian macadamia industry. There is a dearth of knowledge of the disease cycle in macadamia, which confounds disease management. This study investigated the dynamics of pathogen inoculum associated with Botryosphaeria branch dieback and the influence of environmental factors (temperature, rainfall and relative humidity) on the seasonal spore release within the orchards. Diseased and asymptomatic plant parts from macadamia trees were collected each season for 3 years in commercial orchards. Fungal structures (pycnidia and pseudothecia) mainly were (71%) observed on symptomatic wood samples. A comparison of the number of spores released from the fungal structures between summer and autumn revealed high concentrations of Lasiodiplodia pseudotheobromae from diseased wood (4.8 x 10(4) conidia/cm(2)) and Neofusicoccum luteum from blighted leaves (2.1 x 10(3) conidia/cm(2)). The peak airborne conidia dispersal period, quantified using microscopy and quantitative PCR assays, was consistently detected after rainfall and strongly associated with relative humidity over 70% and temperatures between 20 and 27 degrees C during summer and autumn. Botryosphaeriaceae isolates obtained from the pycnidia on the macadamia trees caused severe branch dieback symptoms when inoculated on detached macadamia twigs, which suggests both airborne and rain-splashed spores from fungal structures on the trees contribute to the disease in macadamia orchards.