In Situ Polymerization of Hydrogel Electrolyte on Electrodes Enabling the Flexible All-Hydrogel Supercapacitors with Low-Temperature Adaptability

All-hydrogel supercapacitors are emerging as promising power sources for next-generation wearable electronics due to their intrinsic mechanical flexibility, eco-friendliness, and enhanced safety. However, the insufficient interfacial adhesion between the electrode and electrolyte and the frozen hydrogel matrices at subzero temperatures largely limit the practical applications of all-hydrogel supercapacitors. Here, an all-hydrogel supercapacitor is reported with robust interfacial contact and anti-freezing property, fabricated by in situ polymerizing hydrogel electrolyte onto hydrogel electrodes. The robust interfacial adhesion is developed by the synergistic effect of a tough hydrogel matrix and topological entanglements. Meanwhile, the incorporation of zinc chloride (ZnCl2) in the hydrogel electrolyte prevents the freezing of water solvents and endows the all-hydrogel supercapacitor with mechanical flexibility and fatigue resistance across a wide temperature range of 20 degrees C to -60 degrees C. Such all-hydrogel supercapacitor demonstrates satisfactory low-temperature electrochemical performance, delivering a high energy density of 11 mWh cm(-2) and excellent cycling stability with a capacitance retention of 90% over 10000 cycles at -40 degrees C. Notably, the fabricated all-hydrogel supercapacitor can endure dynamic deformations and operate well under 2000 tension cycles even at -40 degrees C, without experiencing delamination and electrochemical failure. This work offers a promising strategy for flexible energy storage devices with low-temperature adaptability.