Density measurement and uncertainty evaluation of elemental and alloy liquids using electrostatic levitation

Liquid density is a crucial parameter in physical models, numerical simulations, and a key thermophysical property essential for understanding various physical phenomena. Although density measurements of liquid metals have been carried out with various methods, it is still hard to give consistent and precise results, particularly at high temperatures. In this study, we systematically perform the precise density measurements for 34 elemental and alloy liquids using electrostatic levitation (ESL). Through a comprehensive review of density data in the literature, we propose recommended density values for fourteen transition metal liquids. Notably, we observe significant discrepancies in density measurements between ESL and electromagnetic levitation (EML). After conducting careful uncertainty evaluation and error analysis, the discrepancies are attributed to the shape deformation of the liquids, which seriously influences the density and its temperature coefficient measurements. The present work not only provides high-quality density data but also helps to develop standards for archiving density datasets and improve the density measurements of high-temperature molten melts.