Facile processing of red phosphorous-carbon composites as high-performance anode materials for sodium-ion batteries

Sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) are being considered as potentially useful alternatives for the storage of energy owing to the limited availability of lithium resources. However, high-performance electrode materials with facile design are essential for successful and sustainable deployments. Herein, red phosphorous is processed using a facile balling with super P (P@C), carbon nanotubes (P@CNT), and graphene oxide P@GO, and their electrochemical performances are evaluated as anodes in SIBs. The P@CNT and P@GO anodes have approved excellent cyclabilities, at 0.1 C, of 497 and 458 mAh/g, respectively at the 200th cycle compared to 235 mAh/g of P@C. The rate capability test shows relatively low capacity of 122 mAh/g for P@C while the P@CNT and P@GO electrodes exhibit 284 and 211 mAh/g capacities, respectively, at a high rate of 3.0 C. The charge transfer resistance values obtained for P@C, P@CNT, and P@GO anodes were 711, 478, and 486, respectively, corroborating the results of the rate capability. Further, ex-situ transmission electron microscopy measurements conform properly maintained surface morphology of the P particles even after 200 cycles, indicating the better stability of the P@GO electrode.