Eco-efficiency evaluation and simulation optimization of multi-life cycle recycling of lead: Evidence from China

Multi-life cycle (MLC) recycling of lead is an effective way to achieve the sustainable development of the lead industry, but the comprehensive effect of resource utilization and environmental impact in the process is difficult to evaluate. Eco-efficiency is a comprehensive indicator that takes into account resources and environment and can be effectively applied to the evaluation of the MLC recycling of lead. Therefore, this study aimed to develops modified stock-based model and dynamic material flow analysis to quantify the MLC recycling structure of lead, and then constructs an eco-efficiency evaluation system combined with life cycle assessment. The MLC recycling of lead was found to no longer allow China mine primary lead in 2041. During 2000-2050, the MLC recycling increased both the resource cumulative effect by 11.13 times and the eco-efficiency measured via the indicator of global warming potential by 2.55 times. We construct three policy scenarios: enhancing recycling technology, massive replacement and improving environmental regulation. The combined policy of all the scenarios exerted the best promotion effect on the recycling structure, resource cumulative effect, and eco-efficiency. Improving the lead production technology and seeking a win-win situation between lead-acid and lithium batteries were the key to achieving the sustainable development of the lead industry.