Understanding the future of bio-based fertilisers: The EU's policy and implementation

Bio-based fertilisers (BBFs) aim to reduce the European Union's (EU) dependence on imported mineral fertilisers by recycling and reusing nutrient-rich by-streams. However, implementation can be very complex, and the right policies must be delivered to optimize BBFs' production-consumption flows. This study seeks a new perspective for policymakers by understanding current policies and reviewing previous studies on BBFs' implementation. Data collection from the researchers' database plus additional information from the ''EU-Lex'' platform and Member States' Government websites were obtained to fulfil the critical analysis. Our reviews indicate that policies related to BBFs are still under development to comply with some appropriate laws and regulations for their implementation. The current policies, implemented among others by the new EU Fertilising Products Regulation (FPR), are structured by component material categories (CMC) and product function categories (PFC) that govern the specific function of the product and the raw material utilization. For farmers and Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs), compliance with the FPR may be challenging. Yet, for regional use, farmers and producers can still rely on BBFs in compliance with national regulations. In addition, attention from policymakers is needed to increase the level of public acceptance, farmer's adoption, and availability of BBF with acceptable prices. Finally, this study provides prospective research opportunities to help the development of BBFs.