Single-cell RNA-sequencing and subcellular spatial transcriptomics facilitate the translation of liver microphysiological systems for regulatory application.

Reducing the use of animal models in drug development and safety assessment has long been supported by the U.S.Food and Drug Administration(FDA).The report by Royal Society for the Pre-vention of Cruelty to Animals indicates that in 2020,experiments involved the use of over 100 million animals,with the United States leading the list by utilizing 20 million animals.Beyond ethical con-siderations associated with animal testing and the costs in terms of time and money,animal models are not always effective in predict-ing human reactions to drug exposure.