Time-manipulation Attack: Breaking Fairness against Proof of Authority Aura

As blockchain-based commercial projects and startups flourish, efficiency becomes one of the critical metrics in designing blockchain systems. Due to its high efficiency, Proof of Authority (PoA) Aura has become one of the most widely adopted consensus solutions for blockchains. Our research finds over 4,000 projects have used Aura and its variants. In this paper, we provide a rigorous analysis of Aura. We propose three types of time-manipulation attacks, where a malicious leader simply needs to modify the timestamp in its proposed block or delay it to extract extra benefits. These attacks can easily break the legal leader election, thus directly harming the fairness of the block proposal. We apply our attacks to a mature Aura project called OpenEthereum. By repeatedly conducting our attacks1 over 15 days, we find that an adversary can gain on average 200% mining rewards of their fair shares. Furthermore, such attacks can even indirectly break the finality of blocks and the safety of the system. Based on the deployment of Aura as of September 2022, the potentially affected market cap is up to 2.13 billion USD. As a by-product, we further discuss solutions to mitigate such issues and report our observations to official teams.