Logging alters tropical forest structure, while conversion reduces biodiversity and functioning

Tropical forests are threatened by degradation and deforestation but the consequences for these ecosystems are poorly understood, particularly at the landscape scale. We present the most extensive ecosystem analysis to date of the impacts of logging and conversion of tropical forest to oil palm from a large-scale study in Borneo, synthesizing responses from 79 variables categorized into four hierarchical ecological 'levels': 1) structure and environment, 2) species traits, 3) biodiversity and 4) ecosystem functions. Variables at the lowest levels that were directly impacted by the physical processes of timber extraction, such as soil characteristics, were sensitive to even moderate amounts of logging, whereas biodiversity and ecosystem functions proved remarkably resilient to logging in many cases, but were more affected by conversion to oil palm plantation. ### Competing Interest Statement The authors have declared no competing interest.