Intranasal administration of a recombinant RBD vaccine induces long-term immunity against Omicron-included SARS-CoV-2 variants

The outbreak of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has posed great threats to global health and economy. Several effective vaccines are available now, but additional booster immunization is required to retain or increase the immune responses owing to waning immunity and the emergency of new variant strains. The deficiency of intramuscularly delivered vaccines to induce mucosal immunity urged the development of mucosal vaccines. Here, we developed an adjuvanted intranasal RBD vaccine and monitored its long-term immunogenicity against both wild-type and mutant strains of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2), including Omicron variants, in mice. Three-dose intranasal immunization with this vaccine induced and maintained high levels of neutralizing IgG antibodies in the sera for at least 1 year. Strong mucosal immunity was also provoked, including mucosal secretory IgA and lung-resident memory T cells (T RM ). We also demonstrated that the long-term persistence of lung T RM cells is a consequence of local T-cell proliferation, rather than T-cell migration from lymph nodes. Our data suggested that the adjuvanted intranasal RBD vaccine is a promising vaccine candidate to establish robust, long-lasting, and broad protective immunity against SARS-CoV-2 both systemically and locally.