Carrageenan-Based Hybrids with Biopolymers and Nano-Structured Materials for Biomimetic Applications

Carrageenan is an algal-originated group of polysaccharides with unusual structural and functional capabilities, desired for different biomimetic applications due to their renewable, biocompatible, and biodegradable nature. Carrageenan-based hybrids (nano-/biocomposites) with different biopolymers and nano-structured materials have been widely reported as potential candidates for bone/cartilage tissue engineering, delivery of drugs/bioactive ingredients, wound healing, and 3D bioprinting applications. Owning to the broad-scale biomimetic applications of carrageenan-based materials, this review aims to summarize carrageenan chemistry and distinct physicochemical features of biopolymeric and/or nanostructured materials-based on carrageenans in a detailed manner. Herein, different biopolymers (such as chitosan, cellulose, starch, and alginates), and nano-structured materials (such as silica nanoparticles, magnetic/non-magnetic nanocarriers, graphene oxide nanoparticles, carbon nanotubes/nanorods, metal oxide nanoparticles) are comprehensively described in combination with carrageenan. However, carrageenan toxicity studies have presented major challenges that need to be addressed when using carrageenan-based materials for biomedical and therapeutic purposes. Several existing challenges, prospects, and research recommendations are described at the end of this review.